The prehistoric period is particularly well represented (163 sites or evidence of sites) at every altitude. Nevertheless, only one or two lithic finds were often discovered, which is not sufficient enough to give any precise chronological characterization. The different types of archaeological data prevent a precise characterisation of the settlement patterns. Nevertheless, since these evidences correspond to the entire chaîne opératoire, some knapping activities might have taken place in the area. Moreover, procurement of raw lithic material supply is not a reasonable explanation as there are no local siliceous resources. Thus, prehistoric peoples did not simply visit the area during short expeditions but probably established real camps. Lithic assemblages are composed of Tertiary flint available a few kilometres farther down in elevation [21]. No imported flint has been found which is quite characteristic of prehistoric sites (all periods) located on the western side of the Cantal massif [24].

A fragment of an elongated scalene triangle with three retouched edges was discovered at 1493 m a.s.l. which suggests a Middle Mesolithic occupation (Fig. 1). Moreover, abundant lithic assemblages (n^o 61, 64, 426, 578, 582) could be dated to the Final Mesolithic/Early Neolithic boundary and Early Neolithic (Fig. 2). Unfortunately, these sites have been ruined by natural erosion or by posterior human activities. As a result, no precise link can be established between the sites and natural geographical characteristics (such as springs, mountain passes etc.). Concerning the palaeoecological data, the first regular occurrences of Cerealia pollen-type observed since 7100 cal BC (beginning of biozone [P-i], Fig. 3) must not be taken into account as no other contemporaneous anthropogenic pollen indicators are evidenced. Moreover, O’Connell et al. [14] showed the important role played by wild grasses with high pollen grain-size in the vegetation since the Lateglacial. Despite this, palaeoecological data (pollen, charcoal, major and trace elements) converge between ca 5900 and 5400 cal BC indicating an Early Neolitic human occupation (Event 1: biozone [P-i], Fig. 3). Pastoral pollen indicators (Plantago sp, Rumex, Artemisia, Urticaceae etc.) associated with a more reliable Cerealia pollen-type observation at ca 5800 cal BC, a slight rise in Poaceae frequencies and evidences of clearances mainly of the oak woodlands (decrease of Quercus values at 20%) are contemporaneous with chemical variations of the peat and a phase of charcoal inputs. Fire-induced deforestation may have caused the abrupt physical and chemical erosion of soils and superficial formations confirmed by a rise of the magnetic susceptibility. From these studies, the anthropogenic origin of fire is thus discussed, even if a climate-driven fire regime is also supposed because similar fire frequency increases have been recorded during this period in different European contexts [28].

Several pollen indicators of pastoral activities reflect a Final Neolithic human occupation in the area (Event 2: end of biozone [P-l], Fig. 3). Direct evidence for cultivation can be correlated with the pollen record of slight beech-fir forest clearances between ca 2700 and 2500 cal BC, inducing soil erosion and peat chemistry variation. A new increase in charcoal sedimentary concentration indicates fire occurrences that could be associated with forest clearances. The use of fire by Neolithic peoples during this period is widely documented in France [26]. Soils made from decayed volcanic rock must have been particularly fertile and easy to till. A more palpable episode of local human activity is also recorded around 1950–1550 cal BC as shown by pollen (noticeable occurrences of Plantago lanceolata, Urticaceae and rise in Calluna, decline of Fagus rates at a mean of 50%) and new chemical variations of the peat (Event 3: biozone [P-m], Fig. 3). Charcoal concentration from Core 2 remains high during these periods, but the absence of radiocarbon dates prevents direct correlations and identification of this event in Core 2. Archaeological data also confirm Late Neolithic and Early Protohistoric human occupation, even if the evidence of sites is few in number. A problem of differential conservation could be avoided for these periods as pottery assemblages have been discovered at high altitudes.

Seventy-six small circular mounds corresponding to 166 structures have been recorded (Fig. 4). They were traditionally considered as Protohistoric funeral mounds [17]. However, test excavations performed on 12 structures demonstrate that they correspond to heaps of rocks removed from fields, from Gallo-Roman period to Modern times (Table 2). Furthermore, these “mounds” are located below 1200 m of altitude, which represents the maximal elevation for cultivation. Future research will aim to determine if other bigger mounds (which are less-represented) are trully Protohistoric funeral mounds.

Between ca 600/500 cal BC, pastoral and secondarily arable pollen indicators show an overall tendency to rise reflecting an increased in land-use in the immediate surroundings of the Peyre site (regular occurrences of Plantago lanceolata, Plantago sp; Event 4: second half of biozone [P-n], Fig. 3). A charcoal phase is observed ca 400–500 cal BC while contemporaneous clearances of the beech-fir forests are recorded (new decline in Fagus values and Abies ones at ca 30%, Fig. 3). Contrary to the previous events described, no significant chemical variations of the peat are noticed. This can be explained by the decrease of the peat sedimentation rate which may restrict the precision of the chemical indicators for the bottom of the sequence. These clearances culminate around the 3rd–4th centuries AD when large-scale systematic deforestations with agro-pastoral purposes start to yield a poorly forested landscape (Event 5: drastic decline in the AP/T ratio from 85 to 60%, end of the biozone [P-n] in Fig. 3 and start of biozone [V-a] in Fig. 5). According to the pollen data, the Gallo-Roman period represents an important threshold in the landscape history of this mountain while archaeological evidences are scarce (6 sites or evidences of sites [Fig. 1] with a probable enclosure dated by ceramic finds to the 3rd–4th centuries AD, Table 2). As cereal pollen-types (including Secale, biozone [V-a] in Fig. 5) do not increase more intensively and rapidly than pastoral indicators, a possible explanation is a pastoral exploitation of the upper zone (above 1100 m a.s.l.) with population concentrations in the lower valleys.

In addition to several remains of agricultural terraces and signs of parcel limits, numerous half-buried structures called huts found in the whole study area must be assigned to Medieval and Modern periods. Two hundred and eighty-seven assemblages were identified that correspond to 565 structures ranging from isolated structures to clusters composed of 15 structures (Fig. 1).

Three main types of structures can be distinguished. First are groups of rectangular structures with stone wall foundations, sometimes partitioned and surrounded by various expansions: paths, gullies supplying water, enclosures etc (Fig. 6). The six sites observed are situated below 1250 m a.s.l. One (site 53) had been excavated and radiocarbon dated to around the 11th–12th centuries (Table 2). These groups may correspond to medieval deserted hamlets, similar to those described in the north of the Massif Central [3] and [5], and probably linked to permanent settlement based on an agro-pastoral economy as the pollen evidences of grazing and arable farming suggest (continuous curves of Cerealia pollen-type and maximum of pastoral indicators, biozone [P-o] in Fig. 3 and end of [V-a] in Fig. 5).

A second type of structures consists of isolated ones or by pairs (213 sites). Most of them have stone wall foundations. Their dimensions (inside) vary with lengths ranging from 6 or 8 to 21 m and widths ranging from 2.8 to 5.7 m. They are often divided in two unequal rooms. Their geographic distribution is wider but strictly limited below 1400 m a.s.l. These structures are located most of the time near the pastoral modern “burons” or mountain dairies. Their great diversity suggests different functions (barns, cowshed etc.) and different chronologies: ca 11th–12th centuries (site n^o 1277) or between ca 1440 and 1550 cal AD (structures n^o 13-2) (Table 2). These structures could be linked to a seasonal pastoral economy, at least for the highest ones above 1200 m a.s.l. Thus pollen data express the existence of a fully agro-pastoral open landscape (the average AP/T ratio is inferior to 30%, biozone [V-b] Fig. 5). Even if grazing remained the primary activity at a local scale in accordance with historical data indicating the start of intensive pastoral farming around the 15th century [2], diversified agriculture activities progressed including cereal farming (Rye/Secale), buckwheat (Fagopyrum) culture at the altitudinal range of the study peat sites (until 1150 m a.s.l), and also regional arboriculture (Chestnut/Castanea, Walnut/Juglans) (biozone [P-p] in Fig. 3 and biozone [V-b] in Fig. 5).

Third structures are many isolated square huts located in the whole study area from 1120 to 1450 m a.s.l. (283 sites). Their dimensions are constant between 4 and 5 m a side without stone wall fundations. Similar square huts are nucleated with five to 11 structures in clusters (31 listed sites, Fig. 1, Fig. 7). Some of these structures are aligned which is similar to those described in the Cézallier and Monts Dore [6]. However, in the predominant “bunch” pattern, structures are gathered at a minimal distance of 12 m. Mixed patterns have also been observed. Four of these nucleated square huts were excavated and radiocarbon dated. Two were dated to the end of the late Middle Ages (ca 1300–1430 cal AD, Table 2) with a phase of reoccupation at the beginning of Modern Times. The last two date to the end of Modern times (ca 1440–1640 AD, Table 2).

All of these huts are situated along the eastern slope of a small hillock, affording both a distant view over the surrounding area and protection against prevailing winds. The entrance is to the east or the south. Investigations carried out on two small structures suggest they were constructed with perishable materials. These structures could be compared to the huts referred to “foguals” or “mazucs” in historical sources of the 16th–18th centuries [2] and [6]. The high-frequency of this nucleated pattern might be explained by the collective character of land ownership, which was important according to the historical archives [2]. At the transition of the 16th–17th centuries, the palaeoecological data evidence a rise of grasses suggesting an expansion of probably better managed pastures because characteristic pastoral indicators for the French Massif Central [10] such as Lotus-type, Trifolium-type are present as well as optimum representation of the more classical ones (Plantago lanceolata, Plantago sp, Rumex, Artemisia etc.). At the same time, a slight agricultural contraction or removal is recorded since the 17th century approximately for an altitudinal range around 1000–1150 m a.s.l. (end of biozone [V-b], Fig. 5). Archaeological and palaeoecological data thus converge to indicate a lowering in altitude (below 1150–1200 m a.s.l.) for summer grazing activity since the 16th–18th centuries. The quite entire mountain of the South Cantal started thus to be specialised in a seasonal pastoral economy until the middle of the 20th century when the “buron” (pastoral structures of the modern and recent period) were abandoned.